Atacama region border dispute between chile and bolivia

Atacama border conflict is one of the longest border conflicts in the world.   It was a border conflict between Chile and Bolivia in the 1800s and ended up with signing of the Peace Treaty between Chile and Bolivia in 1904 and Chile and Bolivia in 1929.At the end of the conflict, Chile annexed all the coastal strip of Bolivia and the southern tip of Peru.   At a point in the course of the conflict, Argentina was drawn into the conflict resulting to its annexation of Bolivian territory which as controlled by Chile.Even after the signing of the peace treaty, the conflict seems to be going on since Bolivia still claim to be granted the sovereign access to Pacific Ocean even after annexation of its costal strip.   Although the area as owned by Bolivia and Peru, Chile continued with mining mineral rights even after the signing of the treaty which as Bolivia list it entire coastal line making it landlocked country.The main cause of the conflict was the abundance of mineral in the Ata cama Desert. Atacama Desert is the driest desert on either with little human inhabitation. However, it is very rich in minerals especially sodium nitrate.This paper will review the Atacama Desert conflict. The paper will first review the geographical background of the Atacama Desert before going into details of the course of the conflict.   The paper will review the main factors that may have fueled the conflict, the course of the conflict and the results of the conflict.Geographical background of the regionThe region of conflict was lying in the Atacama Desert.   Atacama Desert it located in Chile and it covers more than one third of the northern side of Chile stretching for more than 1000 Km. It straddles the Southern border of the country with Peru.The desert is bound on its Westside by dry hills and mounts and on the pacific cost side extending eastward to the Andes Mountains (MundonAndino, 2009).   Atacama is about 13,000 feet high making it the highest and the coldest de sert in the world.The atacama is the direst place on earth.   It is very sterile since it is blocked from the getting moisture by the Andes Mountain and the coastal Chilean Coast Ranges.The center of the  Ã‚   desert has been referred by climatologist as the absolute desert on earth. As long as climatologists have recorded rainfall in the world, there is no rain that has been recorded in the central part of the desert.   However, some areas in the desert have recorded annual average rainfall between 0.6 and 2.1 mm leading to growth of sparsely distributed vegetations.In the area where no rainfall has been recorded, the only moisture in these areas comes from the dense fogs which are called camanchaca formed from the association of cold air and ocean currents which originate from the Antarctic regions.   Life in Atacama is one of the most complexes since this fog is harvested by both plants and animals alike.   The human beings living in Atacama harvest the fog and use the fog nets which capture the fogs and turn it to drinking water (Veblen and Kenneth 2000, p. 26).The landscape is the same as it meteorology.   The landscape consists of plateaus covered by lava flows and basins of salt.   From the image above, the conspicuous white area is a Salt Flat which is located few miles south of one of the small village in San Pedro which is regarded as the epicenter of the desert.Atacama is one of the sparsely population areas on earth.   However, there is an oasis at the middle of the desert which is elevated 200 meters where the village of San Pedro De Atacama lies.   Apparenlty this is a church which was constructed by Spanish conquerors around 1577 (Fernand 1984, p. 59)).Before the conquest by Spanish, the area was mainly inhabited by Atacameno tribe which is credited with the construction of the some fortified towns referred to as pucaras. With the coming of Spanish Empire, there was remarkable growth of cities and tow along the coast  Ã‚   wh ich were mainly due to growth of silver trade mined in Potosi and other mines around the desert.Archeological evidence also shows that San Pedro de Atacama could have been the center for Paleolithic civilizations. Other important mines which are located in the desert include Escondida mine and Chuquicamata mines.Despite the ragged and dry landscape, Atacama is very rich in minerals.   It is a rich source of copper and nitrates which has been the subject of conflict for along time.The whole desert is awash with abandoned nitrate mines. Apart from this, the desert has scientific importance as it is being used by scientists to study the possible survival tactics used by the inhabitants (Absolute Astronomy, 2009). Scientists have showed that the soil at the center of the Atacama Desert is like that in mass and the life in the desert could give important clues to possibility of life in mars.

Sex/Gender and Personal Care Products

Sex/Gender and Personal Care Products For this application paper, I chose to write about personal care products as they relate to sex and gender. I chose this topic because I think that separate personal care products for men and women are, for the most part, ridiculous, and I also wanted to see what sort of differences there were between the two genders’ answers to the questions. The people I had complete the survey were around the same age, which could have affected the results, but I found that women used about 4-6 more products than the men, on average.However, the women had a significantly higher proportion of products used to maintain appearance. One of the men reported that he did not use any products only to improve appearance, while all of the women listed at least 3 products for appearance purposes only. I found the most interesting responses on the question that asked which 5 products the person would choose if they could only use 5 products for an entire week. All of the men included toothpaste, shampoo, soap/bodywash, and deodorant.One of the three men included hair gel, but he was the only man who included anything in the list of 5 items that was exclusively for appearance purposes. On the contrary, all of the women included body lotion and body soap, but one woman wrote that she would choose mascara and lip balm and not toothpaste. An interesting observation that I made was that the men had trouble understanding the difference between which products were for good health/hygiene and which were for appearance.None of the women asked me questions about those two questions on the survey, but all of the men did. While all of the women assumed that the two categories were mutually exclusive, none of the men did, and answered the two questions with very similar numbers (for example, the health/hygiene proportion would be 9/10, and appearance proportion would be 10/10). The women had more even proportions, with about 1:3 to 1:1 appearance:hygiene ratio. My findings mostly support society’s views on gender differences, that the genders are very different and should be separated distinctly.With personal care products, society is conflating sex and gender. People claim that it’s â€Å"natural† for people to use products designed for their gender. However, sex is biological, but gender is socially constructed. Therefore, the personal care product companies are catering to social constructions. It is obvious that they are more concerned with social constructions than biological differences with a quick glance strolling down the aisles at a pharmacy. Products for men, for example, Dove Men + Care, use colors like gray and blue.Dove products targeted at women feature shades of pink and fruity scents. While gray and blue are associated with masculinity and pink with femininity, these are not inborn, biological differences. They are socially constructed ideas about what should be associated with each gender. With the weak and easily disproved argument that personal care products are rooted in biological differences tossed aside, it is easy to see many issues with gendering personal care products.First of all, women have many more personal care products than men. With the exception of feminine hygiene products like tampons and sanitary pads, women and men, for the sake of hygiene, have very similar personal care product needs. Both use soap, shampoo, toothpaste, deodorant, and maybe lotion and shaving products. However, while men’s products are often streamlined, like 2-in-1, women have a whole array of products targeted specifically toward them that do not have a male equivalent.For example, anti-aging cream, makeup, eye cream, and other products designed to improve appearance are targeted at women, which sends the message that women need to worry about their appearances much more than men. Furthermore, not only are women encouraged to use more products than men, they are often more expensive. I examined the differences between men’s and women’s deodorants on drugstore. com and found that 2. 6 oz of Degree for Women deodorant/antiperspirant is $4. 99, while 2. 7 oz of Degree for Men is $3. 49. Not only do women have more products targeted at them, they are more expensive.Another thing I noticed in the deodorant section was that while most men’s deodorants come in both an antiperspirant and non-antiperspirant variety, almost all of the women’s deodorants contained antiperspirants. This sends a message that sweating, a basic and necessary biological function that all humans do, is okay for men, but not for women. The findings were mostly what I expected. I did expect the women to report using a higher number of personal care products, but I also know that they most likely forgot about some things that they use on a regular basis; however, the men could have also forgotten some things that they use.

The Murder Of The United Colonies Of America - 1019 Words

Hello. I am supposed to be dead, I am not and I have no idea why. I woke up in a hotel room without any memory. Then I looked at a television and almost had a heart attack. I was wanted for murder. The murder of the President of the United Colonies of America(UCA. That also includes The United States). He was giving a speech and was shot by a sniper. Me. Apparently, when they saw where the bullet came from, they rushed to check it out and they saw an M24 on the ground. It had three bullets missing and my fingerprints all over it. They said it could only be a trained hitman or a UCA Marine. They say I was both. I can’t remember anything, not even my name. But I have two memories. One was being thrown from an F2 tornado. It threw me about a mile. I was lucky that I landed on my right arm. I’m left handed. I had been taken to the hospital and they had me drink a serum that healed my bone completely. The other was that I have a twin. We’re both boys. You have no idea how many times we’ve impersonated each other. Okay. Now back to the present. I sat up and walked around. I was on a hotel room bed. There was a desk on the right of the bed. On the desk was a laptop. It was a X3S90. The X3S90 laptop is made to look like a briefcase. There was a laptop bag next to the desk(I don’t know why). There is also a black backpack. I assumed it was mine. On my right, there was the bathroom, a closet and the door. There was also a big refrigerator next to the closet I walked out of the hotelShow MoreRelatedCapital Punishment Formal And Legal Foundations761 Words   |  4 PagesThe first execution recorded in the United States happened in 1608.However, the capital punishment formal and legal foundations were not decisively instituted until later in the 17th century when early European settlers created permanent colonies in the new world after the1620s. 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The Secret to Good Short Essay Samples

The Secret to Good Short Essay Samples A good deal of times you might need to compose a personal essay. Also, utilize all the scratch paper you want. What you have to do is to explore the topic. Looking at IELTS essay topics with answers is an excellent approach to assist you to get ready for the test. Adding a number of the winning elements from the sample essays below will supply you with the additional marks you want to be a high-scorer on the IELTS. Students have a difficult time in writing if they don't have a draft or outline to follow. The Unusual Secret of Good Short Essay Samples Let's take a quick glance at them. The outstanding part about it's that you aren't required to sign in for your purchase. Because you just have a quick space, you have to be cautious with your word choices AND make sure that you fit in everything you've got to say in only a few pages. Things You Should Know About Good Short Essay Samples With a 100 word scholarship essay, you must jump in the thesis as speedily as possible. That means you can be ensured of superior scholarship essay examples. The essay ought to have a little bit of structure, unlike a normal essay. Stephen's essa y is quite effective. Before it is possible to pick a compelling essay topic, first you ought to comprehend why there's an essay in the very first spot. In order to supply an in-depth understanding about the argumentative essay, it is wise to take a look at some of the greatest examples of argumentative essay. A great essay should have essential points. Every argumentative essay ought to be based on a topic which can be debated. A quick memoir may be an account of one, life-changing event, or it might be reflection on a period of growth or transition. Indeed, some of life's finest offerings don't have any discernible long-term benefits. Our whole life is the procedure of learning and gaining new useful understanding. An expert biography template is meant to lessen the practice of generating printed professional biographies especially for a person who would like to reach plenty of people or institutions. Good Short Essay Samples Secrets That No One Else Knows About Finally, however, remember tha t excellent writing doesn't happen by accident. The simplest approach to specify the form of an essay is to realize the writer's point of view. When the topic was decided, it's essential to come up with an argument surrounding the exact same. Any superior task finishes with an excellent conclusion and the very best examples of the argumentative essay will arrive in with a conclusion which has an overview of all of the points together with a gist of the evidences provided. The Good Short Essay Samples Game A personal essay provides the reader a glimpse of your private life experience. It is possible to also have a look at sample bios to work out how to do the full procedure of inventing an expert biography. Lastly, the detail of true speech makes the scene pop. Every examples of synthesis essay should stick to a structure to be able to convey the message in the most effective method. A Secret Weapon for Good Short Essay Samples Critical thinking is demanded! Short essays are important when one is hoping to present an important topic without needing to compose lots of words or using several pages. Showing your previous success will instill confidence about your upcoming success. An argumentative essay example will reveal the should possess some critical components which make it better in the practice of convincing. How to Find Good Short Essay Samples A great persuasive argument will use the latest data and data from verified sources. The introduction shouldn't be more than a single statement and it should give an overview of the synthesis. You require a crystal clear focus and evidence to back up your claims. You may also do some studying to learn more about the points to discuss so as to present a logical and compelling review. A brief answer essay provides the college a beneficial window into the applicant's interests. It's very beneficial to take writing apart as a way to see just the way that it accomplishes its objectives. In addition, the writing norms and specified format is going to be taken into consideration when performing the endeavor. You will need to understand how to compose an effective essay as it is a typical foundation for a student's grade.

Essay about The 4th of July vs. Justice Taney in Dred...

The 4th of July vs. Justice Taney in Dred Scott Ruling In the years leading to the U.S. Civil War, the controversy over slavery became not only a social issue, but also a political and legal one as well. Opponents and proponents of slavery each looked to the American constitution, as well as the prevailing culture of the time, for direction in dealing with this matter. Two such people who based their landmark works on this were Justine Taney of the U.S. Supreme Court, and Frederick Douglas, an emancipated slave, who fought tirelessly for the abolishment of slavery. In 1852, Frederick Douglas was asked to speak at a July 4th celebration. In his speech, he made it known clearly, his detestment for the†¦show more content†¦He likened this to the analogy of rivers, which, he said, were like nations. Even though a river can not be turned aside, it may dry up. If a nation dries up, there will be nohing left of that nation, except a withered branch. This withered branch is a symbol of what the nation believed in and what could happen to it if it unfairly cast aside certain members of its society. Douglas also pointed out that the Declaration of Independence was one of the most valuable factors in the Nations destiny. The principles written in the Declaration of Independence should be kept and adhered to. Be true to to them on all occasions, wrote Douglas. He believed that most documents that were written after the Declaration of Independence didnt follow the significant ideology set forth in the Declaration of Independence. Douglas wants to use the Constitution, but without the pro-slavery clause in it. In stark contrast to this, Justice Taney, who wrote the majority opinion of the court in the case of Dred Scott V. Sandford, dealt a major blow to the work of Frederick Douglas. In his opinion, Justice Taney uses the same reference points as Frederick Douglas, only to twist it, and give it a pro-slavery slant. Like Frederick Douglas, Justice Taney too makes mention of the Declaration of Independence, but in this case, to prove that blacks were never intended to maintain full legal

People and Organizational Management Literature Review

Question: Discuss about thePeople and Organizational Managementfor Literature Review. Answer: Literature Review Conflict and Negotiation Conflict is identified as the divergence in the mode of interest between different stakeholders associated with the fulfillment of expectations and aspirations in a simultaneous fashion. In the workplace conflict arises owing to the interests of parties for generating solutions to organizational problems in a coveted fashion(Shen, Chanda, DNetto, 2009). These people are interested in sharing of values and interest between each other for generation of common solutions (Rozkwitalska, 2012). The above practice of finding common solutions however lead to disputes owing to the failure of matching interests and expectations such that a section of the organizational members feel that generation of a specific type of solution would potentially affect their position in the institution(Shi Wang, 2011). Conflicts also arise when people disagree to the decisions undertaken in that the same tends to affect the fundamental values of the society and community(Podsiadlowski, Grschke, Kogler, 2013 ). Again, disputes tend to rise pertaining to the decisions taken when it tends to affect the value, rights and cultural aspects of individual members (Ferdman Sagiv, 2012). The above type of conflict is difficult to be resolved in that focusing on settling the disputes may tend to affect essential functions and dimensions of the organization. Different types of conflict management styles are indicated in the following illustration. (Khanaki Hassanzadeh, 2010) The Thomas-Kilmann Model of Conflict Management focuses on employing the five different styles of conflict management indicated as above with the level of assertiveness and cooperativeness as identified between the parties (Stevens Ogunji, 2010). The same is reflected in the following illustration. (Khanaki Hassanzadeh, 2010) The application of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Management model related to the aspect of nursing reflect that nurses focus on employing the conflict management style of avoiding and compromising to contribute in settlement of disputes (Ongori Nzonzo, 2011). The above styles of conflict management associated with the nursing categories also duly imply the use of such styles by women as a whole (Shen et al., 2009). Nurses are thus observed to share reduced intentions in competing and rather focus on avoiding conflicting situations or in achieving needed compromises (Olsen Martins, 2012). It was further inferred that nurses ideally focus firstly on arriving at compromises and then in employing avoidance. The application of Thomas-Kilmann model on other medical students and graduates reflect that they firstly chose avoidance and subsequently resorted to tactics associated with compromise and accommodation (Edewor Aluko, 2007). Negotiation is identified as dialogues and conversations carried out between a set of two or more parties that are intending to develop an understanding and also to resolve differences between each other and thereby to gain due advantage of the outcome generated in an unanimous fashion (Bhatia Kaur, 2014). Similarly, discussions like collective bargaining carried out between two or more groups also aim at generation of common advantages and benefits for each other (Shi Wang, 2011). The act of negotiation is thereby identified to encourage the parties involved in such for compromising with each others needs and expectations (Rozkwitalska, 2012). Negotiation as a process is carried out both related to business and non-business sectors (Nilson, 2010). Different types of negotiations are pursued for pursuing a common goal (Olsen Martins, 2012). The model of distributive negotiation is identified as a negotiation type where the two sides involved in negotiation firstly observe that no common understanding would take place between them (Salas et al., 2012). Further, the parties involved employ different tactics associated with guile and bluffing and develop a win-loss situation such that one party gains at the cost of the other (Jehanzeb Bashir, 2013). The act of distributive negotiation tends to involve parties that were not involved nor would be involved in future periods in any type of interactive discussions (Dartey-Baah, 2013). In contrary to distributive negotiation the act of integrative negotiation potentially focuses on integrating different types of tactics that would potentially help in developing the level of interaction and understanding between the parties (Slavi? et al., 2014). Integrative negotiation practices thus focus on enhancing the quality of the agreement achieved between the parties (Edewor Aluko, 2007). Further, where distributive negotiation tends to identify that a common pie needs to be distributed among the parties; integrative negotiation on the other hand focuses on generating an expansion to the pie thereby aiming to generate a win-win situation for the different parties (Ferdman Sagiv, 2012). Negotiation is also observed to be essentially comprised of four main elements like strategy, process, tools and finally tactics. Negotiation strategies mainly aim at development of the relationship between the parties involved and also the final outcome generated by them (Ongori Nzonzo, 2011). Processes and tools relate to the different types of steps that are required to be pursued and also the roles of the different parties involved in the negotiation process (Dartey-Baah, 2013). Further, tactics relate to the different types of actions and also the responses needed to be undertaken by one party based on the actionable statements rendered by the other party(Edewor Aluko, 2007). In current day practices of negotiation, the act of influencing and pursuing is also identified as an integral element that contributes in actively accomplishing the negotiation process. Different types of negotiation styles identified are discussed as follows. The negotiation styles identified potentially match the Thomas-Kilmann model of conflict management. Accommodating style of negotiation is pursued by individuals that focus on generating effective solutions to disputes and problems faced by others and thereby aim in pursuing and enhancing relationships(Olsen Martins, 2012). Individuals that are not interested in resolving conflicts through negotiation tend to take resort to the Avoidance style. Similarly, the collaborators are identified to be such individuals that ideally focus on the use of creative styles for resolving of problems and disputes(Jehanzeb Bashir, 2013). Negotiators aimed at gaining or winning focus on taking resort to the competing style. These negotiators focus on employing strategies related to collective bargaining for resolving of disputes and also dominate the process for augmenting personal gains(Podsiadlowski, Grschke, Kogler, 2013). Finally, the compromising style of negotiation is pursued by such individuals that focus on conducting such activities that would help in generating fair and equal treatment to different parties negotiating with each other. Compromisers are however argued to generate quicker solutions in terms of rushing about the negotiation process(Slavi?, Berber, Lekovi?, 2014). Analysis Based on Three Diagnostic Tools Application of the Johari Window The Johari Window is developed based on the integration of four quadrants like Open, Blind, Hidden and Unknown. The Open and Blind quadrants are based on the horizontal axis reflecting Known and Not Known to Self while Hidden and Unknown quadrants are based along the vertical axis Known and Not Known to Others. The same is reflected in the following illustration. (West Turner, 2010) For applying the Johari Window in conflict management Solicits Feedback is mapped along the horizontal axis along the top of the window while Willingness to Self-Disclose or the interest of giving feedback are mapped along the vertical line of the window. The evaluation of the scores along the two axes reflects that Solicits Feedback generates a score of 29 while the parameter of Self Disclosure tends to generate a score of 26. Application of Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Questionnaire The application of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Questionnaire reflects the following score for the different parameters like Competing, Collaborating, Compromising, Avoiding and Accommodating as indicated in the Thomas-Kilmann Model(Shen, Chanda, DNetto, 2009). The scores gained related to the different parameters reflect 11 for Competing, 4 for Collaborating, 5 for Compromising and also 5 for Avoiding and Accommodating respectively. The scores gained against the different styles for conflict management as indicated in the model ideally reflect that I generally focus on taking resort to the Competing style in managing and resolving conflicts. The competing style thereby requires me to conduct needed bargaining for generating effective solutions to emerging disputes. Further analysis based on the Thomas-Kilmann scores reflect that my conflict management style is highly competing, low in collaboration, average in compromising and also average in level of avoidance and accommodating sty les. Application of Belbin Team Roles The Belbin Team Roles effectively reflect on nine different types of team roles like Resource Investigator, Teamworker, Coordinator, Plant, Specialist, Monitor Evaluator, Shaper, Implementer and Completer Finisher(Rozkwitalska, 2012). The application of the nine team roles in evaluating my conflict management approach reflects as a resource investigator I work in an enthusiastic fashion in exploring new types of opportunities. As a Teamworker I essentially focus on operating in a cooperative and collaborative fashion in resolving different problems and future contingencies. Finally, operating as an effective coordinator I essentially focus on working in a matured and confident fashion in resolving the different types of conflicts that tend to emerge in the organization. Identification of Areas of Improvement Different areas of improvement can be identified from the above analysis. Areas of Improvement Time Frame The application of the Johari Window rightly reflects that I need to develop on my ability to encourage other team members for generating effective feedbacks. The shifting of the vertical axis to the right would potentially reflect the increase on my ability pertaining to encouraging team members for rendering potential feedbacks. Moreover, further endeavors are required to be undertaken for lowering the horizontal axis to thereby encourage team members in soliciting greater feedback. Thus, endeavors like generating more information regarding my nature and also in providing needed feedback to others would contribute in lowering down the horizontal axis. I require effectively monitoring and evaluating the manner in which the decisions undertaken are needed to be implemented. The same would contribute in the generation of effective judgments and feedbacks to the parties involved in the conflict. I need a time pan of five months for addressing the needed improvement. Analysis based on the use of Thomas-Kilmann Questionnaire tool reflects that along with competing I need to develop on my potentials associated with collaboration and compromising. In terms of collaboration, I require on effectively collaborating with different parties to conflict such that I tend to understand their concerns and expectations which would help me in deigning effective conflict management strategies. In terms of compromising, I require to understand the parameters that would ideally help in satisfying the expectations of the different parties to the conflict. I need around 4 months for developing my inner aspects to rightly collaborate with the parties and also to learn compromising with the needs and concerns of the different stakeholders. References Bhatia, A., Kaur, L. (2014). Global Training Development trends Practices: An Overview. International Journal of Emerging Research in Management Technology , 3 (8), 75-78. Dartey-Baah, K. (2013). The Cultural Approach to the Management of the International Human Resource: An Analysis of Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions. International Journal of Business Administration , 4 (2), 39-45. Edewor, P. A., Aluko, Y. A. (2007). Diversity Management, Challenges and Opportunities in Multicultural Organizations . International Journal of the Diversity , 6 (6), 189-195. Ferdman, B. M., Sagiv, L. (2012). Diversity in Organizations and Cross-Cultural Work Psychology: What If They Were More Connected? Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice , 5 (3), 1-51. Jehanzeb, K., Bashir, N. A. (2013). Training and Development Program and its Benefits to Employee and Organization: A Conceptual Study. European Journal of Business and Management , 5 (2), 243-252. Khanaki, H., Hassanzadeh, N. (2010). Conflict Management Styles: The Iranian General Preference Compared to the Swedish. International Journal of Innovation , 1 (4), 419-426. Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors. United Kingdom : John Wiley and Sons. Olsen, J. E., Martins, L. L. (2012). Understanding organizational diversity management programs: A theoretical framework and directions for future research. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 33 (8), 1168-1187. Ongori, H., Nzonzo, J. C. (2011). Training And Development Practices In An Organisation: An Intervention To Enhance Organisational Effectiveness. International Journal of Engineering and Management Sciences , 2 (4), 187-198. Podsiadlowski, A., Grschke, D., Kogler, M. (2013). Managing a culturally diverse workforce: Diversity perspectives in organizations . International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 37, 159-175. Rozkwitalska, M. (2012). Accepted and strong organisational culture in multinational corporations . Journal of Intercultural Management , 4 (3), 5-14. Salas, E., Tannenbaum, S. I., Kraiger, K. (2012). The Science of Training and Development in Organizations: What Matters in Practice. Psychological Science in the Public Interest , 13 (2), 74-101. Shen, J., Chanda, A., DNetto, B. (2009). Managing diversity through human resource management: an international perspective and conceptual framework. The International Journal of Human Resource Management , 20 (2), 235-251. Shi, X., Wang, J. (2011). Interpreting Hofstede Model and Globe Model: Which Way to Go for Cross-Cultural Research . nternational Journal of Business and Management , 6 (5), 93-99. Slavi?, A., Berber, N., Lekovi?, B. (2014). performance management in international human resource management: evidence from the cee region. Serbian Journal of Management , 9 (1), 45-58. Stevens, R. H., Ogunji, E. (2010). Managing Diverse Organizational Environments for Strategic Advantage:Exploring the Value of Developing Business Diversity Curriculum in Higher Education. Journal of Management Policy and Practice , 11 (4), 72-85. West, R., Turner, L. (2010). Understanding Interpersonal Communication: Making Choices in Changing Times, Enhanced Edition. United States : Cengage Learning.

Social policy in Latin America Essay Example

Social policy in Latin America Essay Throughout the economic adjustment of the 1980s, numerous countries of the Latin America witnessed a decline in investment in public services. Today, though, most analysts have the same opinion that the problem in Latin America is not the amount of resources owed to social-sector expenditure, however the distribution and poor performance of social programs due to weak public-sector institutions. Actually, social spending in Latin America evaluates constructively with other regions of the world (Milanovic, Branko. 2005). Pouring added funds into the current system will not develop social conditions because of structural flaws within government institutions and because of public-spending policies that support the wealthy and the politically powerful.An devastating majority of the victims of human rights infringements belong to the world of the poor and the demoralized: half of those detained and disappeared throughout Argentinas 1976-83 military dictatorship were workers, and two-third s were wage-earners; seventy percent of those who died or were moved out between 1979 and 1982 at the hands of the military and death forces in El Salvador were peasants; more than eighty per cent of the victims of human rights violations in Guatemala all through the eighties were native peasants and rural and urban laborers (Vilas 1994, 1995a). Similar findings exist with respect to ethnic (Solares 1993) and womens movements (Fisher 1993).The prevalent social mobilizations of recent decades thus highlight the significance of the popular, meant here as the junction of economic exploitation, political oppression, and poverty. In Latin America the popular is a mixture of socioeconomic, political, and cultural elements. The popular takes in but is not limited to poverty. integrating also a political and cultural aspect, the popular includes middle-class groups mobilized not so much by austerely economic demands as around calls for democratization, public freedoms, and citizenship right s. The political and the cultural extent of the popular imply a self-identification of subordination and oppression (labor, ethnic, gender) in the face of a dominance that is expressed by exploitation (insufficient income, meager wages, denial of a distinguished life or prospects for the future) and is spoken institutionally, through insecurity, arbitrariness, and socially biased compulsion. It therefore implies some type of delineation and, ultimately, opposition to recognized power. In particular it signals opposition to the institutions and organizations that symbolize and eloquent exploitation and authority in its various forms.Much of the literature on social policy and public-sector reform in Latin America stresses the need to look first and foremost at large, unproductive social ministries as obstacles to progress. In numerous countries, efforts to implement more-constructive approaches to the delivery of necessary public goods and services pale in contrast with the vital rol e played by national systems. For instance, Venezuelas Ministry of Education is by far the countrys largest single employer, followed by the Ministry of Health and the social security system (Ricardo Hausmann, 1994, p. 178).As the sole providers of social services, ministries manage public goods in a highly central structure that hardly ever consults beneficiaries or bodies responsible for program implementation at the local level. Consequently, the central monopoly over social services has had a crowding-out result on local government and other actors. Organizational processes have yet to be rationalized and are plagued by strong institutional inflexibilities. The organizational structure lends itself to excessive influence and interfering of interest groups. Ministry units dealing with services for the poor are â€Å"less sophisticated and well connected than units accountable for higher education or for hospitals.† Doctors typically control policy choices in health ministr ies, which are â€Å"nearly an agent of the profession in some countries.† (Joan Nelson, 1996).Social ministries do not have high status and those chosen to head them are not strong leaders nor do they have supporting clout. High turnover at the top explains to both a lack of continuity in leadership and improved influence of bureaucratic interests.Health and education ministries particularly are often deeply divided internally and have failed to undertake the challenges of sectoral assimilation and coordination of policies. The majority countries in Latin America offer a wide range of social services and programs, often with overlying objectives. Hardly ever do those involved in the design and delivery of services come jointly to organize efforts in a noticeably defined set of national priorities for an overall approach toward poverty improvement and social equity.Problems rated in this need of integration and synchronization is compounded by failures in program design and a ssessment. Uncertain objectives and uncertainty in criterion for selection of program beneficiaries can often be accredited to an absence of explicit diagnostics of the populations needs. A 1995 assessment of antipoverty strategies employed all through the region finds that â€Å"there are no in-depth assessments of the programs impact on the living conditions of their beneficiaries, nor studies to establish the actual coverage of the target group or to identify sectors that are expelled.†(Dagmar Raczynski, 1995, p. 15).   Unlike economic progress, it is very hard to measure and monitor input and output of social services; it is unattainable to assess the impact of policies without adequate data. â€Å"Countries spend a great deal to measure inflation, the fiscal discrepancy, output, and the balance of payments accurately. Poverty, income distribution, and social indicator are never measured with equal care,† concludes Nora Lustig in another broad study of social pol icies (1995, p. 35).Without accurate data collection or sophisticated program design and coordination, entrenched patterns of social exclusion, clientelism, and corruption persist to permeate state services, reflecting a system ruled by corporate interests and political support. Despite stated policies of universalism, large divisions of the population are excluded from social services, predominantly rural workers and urban poor employed in the informal sector. Social policies originated in this context have had a regressive effect on income distribution in Latin America. Reforms to address fairness in the distribution of public goods will always challenge vested interests and conventional patterns of political power.Despite powerful interests to protect policies that have been influenced toward Latin Americas influential and the middle class, there is extensive consensus today for the need to undertake institutional and structural obstacles to evenhanded growth. Reform of the state at present means much more than downsizing or policies of liberalization, privatization, and deregulation. Political leaders, with the support of international lending institutions, have altered beyond efforts to reverse policies founded on populism and import replacement to pursue a course toward institutional development (Shahid Javed Burki and Guillermo E. Perry, 1998). Focus on social-welfare issues has brought public attention away from interceding the costs of adjustment to deeper concerns regarding the quality of and access to social services, above all health and education. Though, the region lacks a model for addressing more difficult second-generation reforms.Delineation and opposition are not unidirectional; the plurality of expressions of domination orients communal action towards a multiplicity of targets, most evidently the state, but also political parties, trade unions, non-governmental organizations, or international organizations. Nor does the state proceed with a single voice with respect to these demands. Several state agencies may be seen as more receptive allies or interlocutors than others. Likewise, collective action refers to proportions of the private sphere violence against women and children, sexual direction, the household division of labor as well as to the public sphere. In effect, the very differentiation between public and private globes is subject to question, in that public sharing of some actors is conditioned by relations of power and divisions of labor in the private sphere. In general, these factors set up a tension between the delineation of the popular in terms of a plurality of identities, and the unity of the popular as a meaning of shared conditions of oppression, utilization, and impoverishment.The multiple directions of collective action entail the multiple dimensions of that action, varying from demands for institutional contribution to the search for forms of coordination or collaboration among institutional act ors, and to dissent movements and appeals to direct action. Processes of democratization in Latin America have had obscurity integrating the agendas and dynamics of social movements, and social movements themselves, into the establishment and functioning of institutions. Representative democracy is linked uncomfortably to social participation. Political and institutional rigidities that obstruct incorporation of their agenda lean to relegate social movements to the area of social protest and pressures from outside the political system. The ineptness of institutional actors in processing the demands of social movements weakens the representative basis of the democratic regime and reinforces the institutional eccentricity of these movements.The conjoining of domination, utilization, and poverty in the construction of a popular subject means that the popular is comprised on the basis of multiple reference points positioned in a complex web of complementarily and negation, in which subj ects choose those ingredients that best state their condition of oppression and utilization. In some cases, the popular is constructed around class individualities, in others it is based on ethnic referents, as in still others gender or representative elements become central. Other referents are articulated around these, additionally to the fact that explicit modes of insertion into the labor market, disparities in access to economic resources, and particular positions in power relations influence how actors put up their own notions of gender, ethnicity, class, or other categories. No identity is explicit or static; what remains eternal for the popular subject is coercion and utilization in a context of poverty, even though the phenomenology of each of these dimensions, and the perspectives through which actors approach, conceptualize, and experience them, are reliant.The emergence and activism of social movements permitted for the manifestation and recognition of a wide range of ac tors as sources of communal action. This is at the same time a discrete way of conceptualizing and practicing citizenship. The revolt of identities makes open the multiple ingredients in addition to socioeconomic or class status that play a role in the foundation of citizenship: the right to civic equality is asserted together with, and intertwined with, the right to recognize differences (de Sousa Santos 1994). Moreover, this diversity of social identities marks a clear counterpoint with the legal unidimensionality of political citizenship: the multiplicity and involvedness of the popular in the face of the literalness of citizenship; the democratic nature of identity construction and of efforts to instill identities with an institutional existence; and the authoritarian nature of an institutional democracy that lessens, denies, and homogenizes the richness of social diversity. while an indigenous child is barred from speaking his or her own language in school, or is taught that what he or she speaks is a parlance, this child is being taught that there are first-class and second-class languages, first-class and second-class language speakers, and that the childs father, mother, brothers and sisters, and all those like him or her, are second-class people. As children witness a man (the father, uncle, or boyfriend) wreak abuse on their mother or sister, they are learning the legitimacy of gender violence one as victimizer and the other as inert victim. All this and much more are entirely compatible with democratic institutions and representative politics.All through Latin America, in spite of the size of these new states as they took form in the first few decades after sovereignty, tensions between center and margin extended across the whole of the nineteenth century. National authorities found themselves in unvarying competition with local authorities to establish the locus of power. For them, decentralization of power and the recreation of control from the center became equated far too often through the disintegration of recently constituted national institutions. Within Spanish-speaking America, Mexico was the country where this fear most often became reality first losing control of its northern tier to the United States and then retaining control over its fringe in the north (the Border States) and the south (Yucatan) more as a significance of circumstance than of effective governance from Mexico City.In time the issues faced by these national governments reallocated from consolidating political independence and founding the authority of the capital city over the locality to ensuring economic independence as well. Throughout the latter part of the nineteenth century and the first some decades of the twentieth, national elites became ever more aware that as foreign investment from abroad increased first British and then U.S. it did not inevitably enhance their nations own inner development. Gradually more, the response was one whereb y such elites saw in the remedy to a stronger state and a well-developed administrative device the means with which to control the activities of foreign economic interests. Thus, in each of the republics, although at unstable intervals and with diverse constellations of national interests, concepts of the authoritarian state and legislation to support government controls over the foreign business sector became usual.Simultaneously, national elites became aware that directive of foreign actors did not automatically show the way to strengthening the private domestic business sector. More often than not, export interests in agriculture and minerals became intimately linked with banking and consecutively with the economic activities of foreign firms. Where nascent national industries developedsuch as in Medellin in Colombia, Monterrey in Mexico, and Sà £o Paulo in Brazilthey proved to be extremely vulnerable to external economic influences, either at a government-to government level or at the level of individual firm activities. The consequence was further argument for the need of government regulation and mediation between the international and domestic economy in defense of national interests.Setting off governmental direction of economic policy was responsiveness that the state desired to mediate in society through social policy. The condition of a certain minimum of social services was seen as necessary to further social progress for the disadvantaged, particularly as they were rallied through elections and entered the political process. Devoid of state action, it did not become obvious in far too many cases that essential services would not build up on their own, nor would income disparities be automatically reduced as economic development took place. Hence, one finds increasing dependence after World War II on the formation of state agencies, typically on an autonomous basis, with the capability to undertake new economic activities such as the continuance o f low prices for fundamental commodities and their distribution (namely, CONASUPO in Mexico). Still more significant was wakefulness of the need for government to take a more active role in the stipulation of social services to buy off labor protests for better working conditions. The best instance of this would be the mounting of wide-ranging social security systems all through Latin America, usually in the form of independent institutes and agencies, providing a broad range of services extending from health care through pensions for the elderly. On the whole, these provisions have been most advanced in those countries or regions where the first stage of economic modernization and the building of strong regional economies concurred with economic modernization in the last part of the nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth: Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, and the central and southern regions of Brazil (particularly the cities of Rio de Janeiro and Sà £o Paulo and areas to the south established largely by European immigrants).All these activities engendered a great expansion in the number of public workers employed and in the weight of the public sector in the domestic economies of these countries. As a result, by the middle of the twentieth century all the large- and medium-sized Latin American republics had obtained extensive, complex state apparatuses engaged in a wide range of social, political, and economic activities. Providing economic expansion was implicit to be the normal state of affairs if correct economic policies were tagged on and could counteract periodic economic crisis and bottlenecks, individual republics had no persuasive reason to reverse these patterns. For, economic growth and development had become associated with an ever-expanding, active public sector. Administrative reform did emerge on the national agendas of these countries from time to time most particularly in Brazil, Venezuela, and Mexico but the power of these endeavo rs was typically to rationalize, to reorder, and to manage government operations more effectively, not to restrain them or to improve alternative patterns of development. The guiding postulation was an ever escalating domestic and international economy.Numerous policymakers, with enthusiastic support from multilateral development banks, have holded decentralization as a tool both to develop services and strengthen democracy by bringing decision making closer to the citizen. In response to political and fiscal devolution, local governments have implicit greater responsibility and are held more responsible for service provision. A 1996 World Bank study details how innovations at the local level can be exploited to drive the next stage of reform. Decentralization efforts that brought developments in administrative performance and the excellence of public services; strengthened fiscal management; improved private-sector development; and increased participation in local and regional deci sion making (Tim Campbell, 1996).As there is uniform eagerness to increase the contribution of civil society at the local level, decentralization is not a panacea. Studies that mark out the effects of decentralization show mixed results. Decentralization has given rise to disagreement in the allotment of responsibility and finance among the federal, state, and municipal governments. In several cases, municipalities shoulder increasing responsibilities for social development without raise in transfers from the central government. In others, states have established sizable revenues for social services, but their efforts to deliver services have been common with inefficiencies and financial dismay. At issue here is the capability of municipalities to put up capacity as well as a sovereign tax base to sustain locally delivered social services. Inefficiencies and weaknesses met in the central government likewise appear in local-level public institutions with the same insinuations for qua lity, productivity, and effectiveness of social services. Finally, decentralization can â€Å"form problems of equity within countries, in the lack of central quality monitoring and financial and technical aid for poorer districts.† (Nelson, 1995).In the same vein, there is a requirement for more empirical evidence to support the present enthusiasm for privatization. Advocates argue that the contracting-out of social services has introduced competition, giving users with choice as a tool to leverage quality and receptiveness. Yet evidence from ten years of privatized schools in Chile suggests little development in test scores.Recent episodes of social turbulence in Latin America, such as in Chiapas, Mexico, offer insight into the frustrations of the poor. Devoid of basic standards of social equity, the fabric of Latin American society is beginning to loosen, manifest in political protest and violence, eventually threatening the consolidation of democracy in the region. Thrivi ng economic and social policies have formed new stakeholders who serve as powerful advocates for reform, but absent amongst the participants in the policy process are the poor, whose voice relics diffuse and poorly planned. Opportunities for the configuration of citizenship and creation of connections between susceptible social groups and the state or its intermediaries remain limited.In a drive to establish their ability, some governments have executed social-welfare reforms in a very undemocratic fashion. The most thriving social programs, such as social-emergency or investment funds, have been formed outside of social ministries and are administered by small, extremely skilled technical groups. Institutional bypassing weakens efforts to strengthen national governments and their democratic institutions. This is a mainly sensitive apprehension for a region with a legacy of authoritarian rule.Social reforms, like economic reforms, are easier to execute when they are safeguarded agai nst intrusion from partisan politics and political clientelism. Though, these protections can increase efficiency at the cost of transparency, liability, and ultimately, public participation. So as to be successful, social reforms require the support and participation of a wide range of actors within the government, across ministries, and within diverse levels of state and local governments. More highly, these government actors must, sequentially, gain the support of the citizenry for policy proposals.Political leaders must learn how to communicate evidently the policies they advocate and influence the public of their value. The media, NGOs, and citizen-based organizations share in this accountability to inform the public, mediate demands, shape reforms, and help make associations between the state and society. Only in this way will citizens, mainly the poor and the marginalized, become authorized to participate significantly in the policy process.As federal governments in Latin Ame rica redefine their role, several analysts have expressed disquiet that the collapse of the overcommitted state intimidates to result in the â€Å"under-engaged state.†(Jonathan Hartlyn, 1998). Central governments have a decisive role to play in providing organization, technical support, and information as well as in making sure equity..